Mbapinen Priscilla Ndur

ndurmbapinen@gmail.com

Department of Primary Education

Federal College of Education (Technical), Asaba

Moses Eteng Obla

oblamoses1987@gmail.com

Department of Arts Education

University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Oladejo, Ismail Abiodun

oladejo@gmail.com

Department of Primary Education

Federal College of Education (Technical), Asaba

Introduction

11Developing and nurturing reading comprehension is crucial for learners both at school and at home, as it is essential for academic success and beyond. This skill extends beyond English language classes because students' ability to pass various content area courses depends on their reading comprehension skills. Effective reading comprehension enables students to grasp and construct meaning from written language through active engagement. Despite the importance of reading comprehension in academic success, many students struggle to comprehend and interpret texts, leading to poor academic achievement. This challenge has been attributed to various factors, including ineffective teaching methods and lack of engagement in the learning process.

Reading comprehension involves understanding and interpreting written text. It is important across all subjects in the formal education system, as no subject in a formal school setting can be learned without comprehension. Aziz, Ahmad, Awang, Aziz, Nurshafezan & Ahmad (2024) emphasizes that this skill relies on readers' ability to use their background knowledge and understanding to interpret the content of the text. Reading comprehension goes beyond simply reading the text; it involves extracting information and knowledge from it. USAID (2014) explains that this process requires readers to connect their prior knowledge with new information gained from the text, thereby enhancing their understanding, extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language.

Reading comprehension involves understanding literary norms, critical assessments, written dramas, and fictional structures to grasp the text's meaning. The author states further that to achieve learning objectives in reading comprehension, various indicators of understanding must be considered (Aziz, Ahmad, Awang, Aziz, Nurshafezan & Ahmad, 2024). From the experts' definitions, it is clear that reading is a multifaceted activity encompassing more than just reading words. It also involves visual, cognitive, psycholinguistic, and metacognitive processes. As a cognitive activity, it includes recognizing words, understanding them literally, interpreting meanings, engaging in critical analysis, and creative comprehension. Therefore, the objective of teaching reading should be geared towards enhancing and developing students' comprehension abilities. According to Elleman and Oslund (2019) the aim of teaching reading is to develop students who can employ reading strategies to optimize their text comprehension, distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information, and manage less-than-perfect word-by-word understanding.

Relatively, Elleman and Oslund (2019) suggest that reading comprehension involves deriving meaning from text. The objective is to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the text, rather than just interpreting isolated words or sentences. This skill is essential for students, as it allows them to grasp not only the meanings of individual words but also the connections between sentences and the main ideas of the text. Thus, to enhance students' reading comprehension, it is important to employ effective strategies that facilitate this process. Reading comprehension is fundamental to reading itself; without understanding the message of the text, reading does not occur. This underscores that reading is a dynamic process of extracting meaning from text. Consequently, the ultimate aim of any reading exercise is comprehension.

Although reading comprehension is crucial for students' academic success and the educational system, there has been a noticeable decline in students' performance in public examination in Nigeria. This decline can be attributed to differences in how English reading comprehension is taught in Nigerian classrooms compared to practices in other English-speaking countries. Research indicates that in many Nigerian classrooms, reading is often used by teachers to maintain order or keep students occupied, rather than as a tool to actively engage students in comprehension. Ochogwu (2020) posits that students are frequently asked to read without guidance on setting reading purposes or activating background knowledge, leading to superficial understanding. It is evident that to make reading worthy of the class time, it must include instruction and coaching from the teacher on text selection and reading strategies, feedback to students on their reading and text discussion (Ochogwu, 2014b).

Furthermore, reading comprehension in Nigeria is integrated into the English language curriculum rather than being treated as a distinct subject, which limits the time allocated for focused teaching of this skill. This integration, coupled with inadequate instructional and minimal daily exposure to the language, contributes to poor student performance in examination. Kanya, Afolabi and Kajinyana (2023) reiterate that the time allocated per lesson in the senior secondary school English lesson is usually not sufficient to use some suitable strategies such as interactive strategies in teaching reading comprehension. This is corroborated by Ochogwu (2014) that poor performance of students in public exams is traced to minimal daily contact with the language.

Research underscores that the ineffectiveness of the teaching methods employed by teachers in teaching reading comprehension in Nigeria often fail to effectively address the challenges associated with reading comprehension thereby perpetuating the circle of poor academic outcomes Ochogwu (2014a). In the same vein, Kanya et al (2023) assert that unsuitable instructional methods are also a hindrance to effective teaching and learning of reading comprehension. Similarly, teachers frequently focus on preparing students for external examinations rather than employing instructional strategies that promote active participation and deeper comprehension of texts (Daniel, 2013). What this implies is that teachers often use learning strategies and activities that are teacher centred and do not create or encourage students to actively participate in the reading process.

In the light of the foregoing, it could be deduced that the teaching methods employed by English Language teachers in teaching reading comprehension have not been effective. There is a general agreement that students' achievement in reading comprehension could be traced to inappropriate methods of teaching by teachers. According to Kolawole and Alao (2015), teachers are expected to use strategies such as predicting, making inferences, summarizing, self-questioning and asking questions to teach reading comprehension. Kendeou, Master, and Christ (2016) highlight that these strategies encourage students to be active and responsible in their learning and assist them in overcoming reading difficulties, thereby increasing or boosting their motivation to read. Teaching reading should focus on developing students' higher order thinking skills, promoting critical thinking, and fostering deeper understanding (Anggi, 2022).

To redress these challenges, English language scholars advocate for the adoption of more effective strategies such as Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) and Presentation, Practice, and Production (PPP) for teaching reading comprehension that actively involve students in the reading process. For instance, DRTA is a recommended strategy that encourages students to ask questions about a text, make predictions, and read to verify or disprove their predictions. This strategy helps students to focus and deeply understand the reading material. The DRTA prompts students to engage actively with the text, enhancing their comprehension before, during, and after reading. It encourages students to predict, question, and validate information while reading, thereby enhancing comprehension and critical thinking skills (Aziz, et al 2024).

The Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) is a reading strategy that encourages students to engage actively with a text by making predictions, reading, and then confirming or refuting their predictions. DRTA follows a step-by-step instructional process for DRTA:

Introduction and Preparation: the teacher introduces the text and ensures students have a clear understanding of the topic and also prepare students for the DRTA process by explaining the steps and expectations.

Predicting: the teacher shows students the title, headings, and illustrations of the text. Ask students to make predictions about the content of the text based on these visual cues and encourage students to share their predictions with the class or in small groups.

Reading: the teacher has students read a section of the text and pause students at predetermined points to discuss their predictions and ask questions.

Proving: after reading each section, the teacher asks students to confirm or refute their predictions based on the text and encourage students to provide evidence from the text to support their conclusions.

Discussion and Reflection: the teacher led a class discussion to explore students' understanding of the text and encourage students to reflect on their predictions and how they were confirmed or refuted.

Conclusion: the teacher summarizes the main ideas of the text and encourages students to think critically about the text and its relevance to their own lives.

The Presentation, Practice, and Production (PPP) framework is a teaching approach used to enhance students' reading comprehension skills. It involves a structured sequence of activities designed to engage students in reading and understanding texts. The PPP framework is based on the idea that students need to progress through different stages to develop their reading comprehension skills. Each stage builds on the previous one, enabling students to gradually develop their understanding and skills. The PPP framework is a structured teaching approach that enhances students' reading comprehension skills (Al Fraidan, 2025). It consists of three stages: Presentation, Practice, and Production.

In the Presentation stage, the teacher introduces a reading text, models reading comprehension strategies, and encourages students to engage with the text (Haerazi, Prayati & Vikasari, 2019). This stage lays the foundation for students to develop their understanding of the text. In the Practice stage, students practice reading comprehension skills through guided activities, such as reading and answering questions, identifying main ideas, and making inferences (Abdelhalim, 2017). The teacher provides feedback and scaffolding to support students' understanding. This stage helps students build their reading skills and develop a deeper understanding of the text. In the Production stage, students apply their reading comprehension skills to produce their own work, such as writing a summary, creating a visual representation, or engaging in discussions (Hall, 2016). This stage enables students to take ownership of their learning and demonstrate their understanding of the text. By using the PPP framework, teachers can create an effective and engaging reading comprehension program that supports students' literacy development.

The Presentation, Practice, and Production (PPP) framework offers several benefits in reading comprehension, including providing a systematic and structured approach to language learning, catering to different learning styles, and fostering a positive and engaging classroom environment. This framework allows teachers to present new language concepts clearly, provide opportunities for students to practice and reinforce their understanding, and produce their own work, promoting student autonomy and fluency. Additionally, PPP encourages active participation, interaction, and communication among students, helping to build their confidence and improve their reading skills. By adapting the PPP method to specific contexts and student needs, educators can optimize learning outcomes and promote English proficiency irrespective of students’ gender.

Recent attention has focused on understanding how gender influences reading comprehension and the use of strategies in language learning. Gender has been identified as a significant variable in second language (L2) reading comprehension; with studies suggesting that instructional strategies may affect gender differences in performance (Rianto & Ehmke, 2021). While some researchers argue that males outperform females in language learning, others suggest that females excel in language-related tasks due to higher internal motivation levels (Xiong, 2010). However, findings vary, with studies like that of Ochogwu (2014a) indicating no significant gender influence on reading comprehension after treatment. This suggests that gender may not significantly influence students' performance in reading comprehension. In this context, it is important to explore how the DRTA strategy could potentially enhance reading comprehension among senior secondary 2 students, while also examining whether gender influences performance outcomes in this regard.

Studies have examined the relationship between reading comprehension and achievement in English, as well as the impact of gender and cognitive styles on reading comprehension. Hijazi's (2018) study found a statistically significant relationship between students' reading comprehension and their achievement in English, with both skills being of a medium degree. This suggests that students who perform well in reading comprehension tend to perform well in English overall. Similarly, Siahaan et al.'s (2022) study found that collaborative strategic reading (CSR) and cognitive styles affected students' reading comprehension, with CSR with Moodle being more effective for learners with independent cognitive styles. This highlights the importance of considering individual learning styles and preferences when implementing CSR to improve reading comprehension.

Investigated gender differences in reading comprehension, with mixed results, Oda and Abdul-Kadhim's (2017) study found that females outperformed males on the critical level of reading comprehension, while Rahmawati and Ummah's (2020) study found no difference between male and female students in reading comprehension achievement. Overall, the studies suggest that reading comprehension is an essential skill for achieving success in English, and that cognitive styles and CSR can impact reading comprehension. The findings highlight the need for further research to investigate the link between reading comprehension and achievement in English and to consider cognitive styles to improve reading comprehension.

Statement of problem

The persistent poor achievement of students in reading comprehension in senior secondary schools in Asaba Metropolis, Delta State, has raised concerns among educators and stakeholders. Despite the importance of reading comprehension in academic success, many students struggle to comprehend and interpret texts, leading to poor academic achievement. Ineffective teaching methods and lack of engagement are major contributors to this challenge. Traditional methods used by teachers that focus on rote memorization and recall have been criticized for not promoting critical thinking and comprehension skills. This study investigates the impact of Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) and Presentation, Practice, and Production (PPP) on students' reading comprehension skills, aiming to identify the most effective approach to improve reading comprehension in the study area. By exploring DRTA and PPP, this study seeks to contribute to developing effective teaching strategies to enhance students' reading comprehension skills.

Research questions

• What is the mean achievement score of students taught reading comprehension with DRTA and PPP method?
• What are the influences of gender on students’ mean achievement scores in reading comprehension?
• What are the interactive effects of strategy and gender on students’ means achievement scores in reading comprehension?

Hypotheses:

HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught reading comprehension with DRTA and those taught with PPP.

HO2: There is no significant influence in the mean achievement scores of male and female students in reading comprehension.

Ho3: There is no significant interactive effect of strategy and gender on students’ means achievement scores in reading comprehension.

Methods and materials:

The study employed a quasi-experimental research design to investigate the effect of Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) and Presentation, Practice, and Production (PPP) on students' reading comprehension. The population of the study consists of 2,869 Senior Secondary School II students (1,345 males and 1,522 females). The study was conducted in 12 government-approved secondary schools in Asaba Metropolis, Delta State. Asaba is an urban capital city with mixed public schools. Average class size ranged from 45-60 students per class. Instructional resources such as textbooks and reading materials were limited, with a ratio of approximately 1:3. The Nigerian Senior Secondary curriculum emphasizes coverage of content for WAEC/NECO, which often limits time for strategy-based instruction. Power outages and teacher workload also affected implementation fidelity. These contextual factors may influence the transferability of DRTA and PPP. While results may generalize to other urban Nigerian settings, rural schools with fewer resources and less parental involvement may experience different outcomes.

A sample of 165 students was selected using a random sampling technique. The study adopted a stratified random sampling technique to ensure representation of both male and female students. The research instrument was a Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (RCAT). The instrument was validated by two experts, one from Primary Education Department and one from Measurement and Evaluation, all from Federal College of Education (T), Asaba. The reliability of the instrument was established using Kuder Richardson 21 (K21) and yielded an index of 0.71. Two research assistants were used for the study. One was used for the experimental group 1 while the other was used for the experimental group 2. The two-research assistant for experimental group 1 and group 2 were given a week training on DRTA and PPP learning strategy. To ensure uniformity and mastery of the teaching strategy, both the teachers in group 1 and group 2 were given a copy of the validated lesson plans and copies of the instrument (RCAT) which was administered as a pre-test and post-test and for the data collection.

During the experimental procedure, pre-test was administered to students using RCAT to determine their initial reading comprehension skills. This followed by treatment where students were 90 students were assigned to DRTA and 75 to PPP group and taught reading comprehension using the respective strategies. The allocation of 90 students to DRTA and 75 to PPP was based on the available intact SS2 classes. Intact classes were used to avoid disruption of school timetables, which is a common practice in Nigerian school-based research. After the treatment, the RCAT was re-shoveled and administered as a post-test to measure students reading comprehension skills after the treatment. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions, while ANCOVA was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. ANCOVA was employed to adjust the posttest scores for initial differences in pretest scores. The adjusted scores reported in this study are the estimated marginal means derived from ANCOVA, which represent the expected posttest performance of each group if all participants had started with the same pretest score. Adjusted scores refer to post-test means that have been statistically adjusted for pre-test differences using ANCOVA. This controls for initial differences between groups.

RESULTS

Research Question One: What is the mean achievement score of students taught reading comprehension with DRTA and PPP method?

Table 1: Mean and SD of achievement score of students in reading comprehension.

Table 1 shows that students who were taught reading comprehension using DRTA had mean achievement score of 38.73 with a standard deviation of 5.58 at the post-test against their pre-test mean achievement score of 25.40 and standard deviation of 9.59 while those who were taught using PPP had mean achievement score of 38.82 with a standard deviation of 5.02 at the post-test against their pre-test mean achievement score of 22.32 and standard deviation of 10.32. Mean adjusted scores of 38.318 and 38.941 for the two groups show that the students who were exposed to DRTA and PPP had a comparable mean achievement score with PPP showing a slightly higher adjusted score than those taught using DRTA.

HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught reading comprehension with DRTA and those taught with PPP.

Table 2: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of the mean achievement scores of students in reading comprehension

Table 2 showed that F(1.953) = 0.164, P<0.05. The result thus implied that students that were taught reading comprehension using DRTA achieved higher than those taught with PPP. The null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught reading comprehension with DRTA and PPP is not rejected. This implies that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught reading comprehension using DRTA and those taught using PPP.

Research Question Two: What are the influences of gender on students’ mean achievement scores in reading comprehension?

Table 3: Mean and standard deviation of achievement score of male and female students taught reading comprehension with DRTA and PPP

Table 3 shows that the male students had mean achievement score of 37.90 with a standard deviation of 6.03 at the post-test against their pre-test mean achievement score of 24.40 and standard deviation of 9.94 while the female students had mean achievement score of 39.34 with a standard deviation of 4.75 at the post-test against their pre-test mean achievement score of 23.74 and standard deviation of 10.11. This shows that the mean post-test score of female students was higher than that of the male students. Furthermore, the mean adjusted scores of 38.162 and 39.097 for male and female students respectively indicate that the female students had higher adjusted score than the male students.

HO2: There is no significant influence in the mean achievement scores of male and female students in reading comprehension.

Table 2 shows that the probability associated with the calculated value of F(2.324) for the influence of gender on the mean achievement scores of students in reading comprehension is 0.129. Since the probability value of 0.129 is greater than the 0.05 level of significance (p>0.05), the null hypothesis was not rejected meaning that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students in reading comprehension taught with PPP and DRTA.

Research question three: What are the interactive effects of strategy and gender on students’ means achievement scores in reading comprehension?

Table 4: Mean and standard deviation of students' achievement mean scores in reading comprehension by strategy and gender

Table 4 shows that male students who were taught reading comprehension using DRTA had a post-test mean achievement score of 35.00 with a standard deviation of 6.96 and an adjusted score of 35.889 while the female students who were also taught with the same strategy had a post-test mean achievement score of 40.79 with a standard deviation of 3.19 and an adjusted score of 40.747. Male students who were taught reading comprehension using PPP had a post-test mean achievement score of 40.72 with a standard deviation of 3.04 and an adjusted score of 40.436, while the female students who were also taught with PPP had a post-test mean achievement score of 37.33 with a standard deviation of 5.76 and an adjusted score of 37.447. These show that female students who were taught using DRTA had higher post-test mean achievement scores than their male counterparts while male taught using PPP had higher post-test mean achievement scores than their male counterparts.

Ho3: There is no significant interactive effect of strategy and gender on students’ means achievement scores in reading comprehension.

Table 2 shows that calculated value of F (35.215) for the interactive effect of strategy and gender on mean achievement scores of students in reading comprehension had an associated probability value of 0.000. Since the probability value of 0.000 is not greater than 0.05 leve1 of significance (p>0.05), the null hypothesis was rejected meaning that there is significant interactive effect of strategy and gender on students' mean achievement scores in reading comprehension.

Discussion

The findings of the study showed that students who were exposed to DRTA and PPP had a comparable mean achievement score with PPP showing a slightly higher adjusted score than those taught using DRTA. Further findings show that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught reading comprehension using DRTA. The model explained 19.6% of the variance in reading comprehension. This moderate R² suggests that other factors not measured in this study likely influenced outcomes. Possible moderators include students’ prior reading ability, motivation and interest in reading, teacher experience with the strategies, classroom language policy especially L1 interference, and home literacy support. Given the resource-constrained Nigerian context, large class sizes and limited instructional materials may have also attenuated the effect of the interventions. These findings are consistent with the findings of Rahmawati and Ummah (2020) who noted that there is no difference between male and female student achievement in reading comprehension.

The findings of the study revealed that female students had higher mean adjusted score than the male students in both pre-test and posttest mean achievement score. This may be in line with the argument in literature that female students often outperform in English language than their male foil irrespective of the pedagogical process and other factors such as learning styles, motivation, or prior knowledge. However, further analysis revealed that there was no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students in reading comprehension. This implies that both male and female students perform similarly in reading comprehension, and any observed differences are likely due to chance rather than a significant effect of gender. The study's findings disagree with Oda and Abdul-Kadhim's (2017) study, which found that females outperformed males to a statistically significant level in reading comprehension.

Findings of the study revealed that female students who were taught using DRTA had higher post-test mean achievement scores than their male counterparts while male taught using PPP had higher post-test mean achievement scores than their male counterparts. Further analysis showed that there is significant interactive effect of strategy and gender on students' mean achievement scores in reading comprehension. This finding implies that the effect of the experimental strategy on students' reading comprehension achievement scores depends on the students' gender. The significant interaction between instructional strategy and gender suggests that DRTA was more effective for female students while PPP favored male students. This can be explained by gendered learning preferences documented in literature. DRTA, with its emphasis on prediction, questioning, and reflective discussion, aligns with cooperative and verbal processing styles often associated with female learners. In contrast, PPP which involves peer-peer and parent partnership activities, may have provided males with more autonomy, activity-based, and socially competitive engagement that matches their learning orientation. classroom observation notes indicated that during DRTA lessons, female students dominated discussions and were more willing to make predictions aloud. During PPP, male students showed higher engagement in peer teaching roles and home-based tasks. While instruction was not intentionally differentiated by gender, the structure of each strategy may have inadvertently favored different participation patterns. Future studies should employ qualitative data to further explore this pattern. The finding contradicts Siahaan, Rahmat and Nuruddin's (2022) study, which found that learning strategy influenced learners' reading comprehension without considering gender differences.

Conclusions:

Both DRTA and PPP strategies showed comparable mean achievement scores in reading comprehension. There was no significant difference in mean achievement scores between male and female students in reading comprehension. However, a significant interactive effect of strategy and gender was found, indicating that DRTA was more effective for female students, while PPP was more effective for male students. Overall, the study highlights the importance of considering gender differences when implementing instructional strategies for reading comprehension. The findings suggest that teachers should be aware of the potential differences in strategy effectiveness for male and female students and adapt their instructional approaches accordingly.

Limitation of the study:

The major limitation of this study is its reliance on quantitative data. Future research should include teacher interviews and student focus groups to understand how DRTA and PPP were enacted, perceived, and adapted in Nigerian classrooms.

Recommendations:

• Since both strategies showed comparable mean achievement scores, teachers can use either strategy or a combination of both to cater to different learning styles.
• Given the significant interactive effect of strategy and gender, teachers should be aware that DRTA may be more effective for female students, while PPP may be more effective for male students.
• Curriculum developers should consider incorporating a range of instructional strategies, including DRTA and PPP, to cater to different learning styles and gender needs.
• Provide teachers with training on how to effectively use DRTA and PPP strategies, taking into account the interactive effect of strategy and gender.
• Educational institutions should promote awareness among teachers about the potential differences in strategy effectiveness for male and female students.

Contribution knowledge:

• The study reveals a significant interactive effect of strategy and gender on students' mean achievement scores in reading comprehension, highlighting the need to consider gender differences when implementing instructional strategies.
• The study provides insights into the effectiveness of DRTA and PPP strategies in improving reading comprehension, showing that both strategies can be effective, but with varying degrees of success depending on gender.
• The study's findings contradict some previous research, highlighting the need for further investigation into the complex relationships between instructional strategies, gender, and reading comprehension.
• The study's findings can inform instructional practices, encouraging teachers to consider the interactive effect of strategy and gender when designing reading comprehension instruction.

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Dear Editor,

Thank you for the opportunity to revise. We appreciate the reviewers’ constructive feedback. We have addressed all comments point-by-point. Major changes include:

• Added theoretical and post-hoc explanation for the gender and strategy interaction.
• Expanded discussion of low R² and added moderating variables.
• Added detailed description of the Nigerian school context and limitations to transferability.
• Clarified sample allocation, explained "adjusted scores", and reformatted tables for readability.

We believe these revisions have significantly strengthened the manuscript.